Mummification page 2

A mummy is a deceased human or animal whose skin and organs have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold, very low humidity, or lack of air, so that the recovered body does not decay further if kept in cool and dry conditions. Some authorities restrict the use of the term to bodies deliberately embalmed with chemicals, but the use of the word to cover accidentally desiccated bodies goes back to at least 1615 AD. (See the section Etymology and meaning.)

Mummies of humans and other animals have been found on every continent,[1] both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats.[2] (See: Animal mummy)

In addition to the well-known mummies of Ancient Egypt, deliberate mummification was a feature of several ancient cultures in areas of South America and Asia which have very dry climates. The oldest known deliberate mummy is a child, one of the Chinchorro mummies found in the Camarones Valley, Chile, which dates around 5050 BCE.[3] The oldest known naturally mummified human corpse is a severed head dated as 6,000 years old, found in 1936 CE at the site named Inca Cueva No. 4 in South America.[4] studies 3 Types of mummies 4 Egyptian mummiesundefined 5 Mummification in other culturesundefined 6 Self-mummification 7 Modern mummiesundefined 8 Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times 9 In popular culture 10 See also 11 References 12 External links
 * 4.1 Mummification and rankundefined
 * 4.1.1 "Most Perfect" method
 * 4.1.2 Avoiding expense
 * 4.1.3 Inexpensive method
 * 5.1 Africaundefined
 * 5.1.1 Libya
 * 5.1.2 South Africa
 * 5.2 Asiaundefined
 * 5.2.1 China
 * 5.2.2 Iran
 * 5.2.3 Siberia
 * 5.3 Europeundefined
 * 5.3.1 Bog bodies
 * 5.3.2 Canary Islands
 * 5.3.3 Czech Republic
 * 5.3.4 Denmark
 * 5.3.5 Hungary
 * 5.3.6 Italy
 * 5.4 North Americaundefined
 * 5.4.1 Canada
 * 5.4.2 Greenland
 * 5.4.3 Mexico
 * 5.4.4 United States
 * 5.5 Oceaniaundefined
 * 5.5.1 Australia
 * 5.5.2 Torres Strait
 * 5.5.3 New Zealand
 * 5.6 South Americaundefined
 * 5.6.1 Chinchorro mummies
 * 5.6.2 Inca mummies
 * 7.1 Jeremy Bentham
 * 7.2 Vladimir Lenin
 * 7.3 Summum
 * 7.4 Alan Billis
 * 7.5 Plastination

Etymology and meaning
The English word mummy is derived from medieval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the medieval Arabic word mūmiya (مومياء) and from a Persian word mūm (wax),[5]which meant an embalmed corpse, and as well as the bituminous embalming substance, and also meant "bitumen".[6]TheMedieval Englishterm "mummy" was defined as "medical preparation of the substance of mummies", rather than the entire corpse, withRichard Hakluytin 1599 CE complaining that "these dead bodies are the Mummy which the Phisistians and Apothecaries doe against our willes make us to swallow".[7]These substances were defined asmummia.

TheOEDdefines a mummy as "the body of a human being or animal embalmed (according to the ancient Egyptian or some analogous method) as a preparation for burial", citing sources from 1615 CE onward.[8]However, theChamber's Cyclopaedia, 1727–41, and the Victorian zoologistFrancis Trevelyan Buckland.[9]define a mummy as follows: "A human or animal body desiccated by exposure to sun or air. Also applied to the frozen carcase of an animal imbedded in prehistoric ice".

History of mummy studies
undefinedHoward Carteropens the innermost shrine of King Tutankhamen's tomb near Luxor, Egypt.undefinedTori Randall prepares a 550-year-old Peruvian child mummy for a CT scan at Naval Medical Center San DiegoWhile interest in the study of mummies dates as far back asPtolemaic Greece, most structured scientific study began at the beginning of the 20th Century.[10]Prior to this, many rediscovered mummies were sold as curiosities or for use inpseudoscientificnovelties such asmummia.[11]The first modern scientific examinations of mummies began in 1901, conducted by professors at the English-language Government School of Medicine inCairo, Egypt. The firstX-rayof a mummy came in 1903 when professorsGrafton Elliot SmithandHoward Carterused the only X-ray machine in Cairo, at the time, to examine the mummified body ofTuthmosis IV.[12]British chemist Alfred Lucas applied chemical analyses to Egyptian mummies during this same period, which returned many results about the types of substances used in embalming. Lucas also made significant contributions to the analysis ofTutankhamunin 1922.[13]

Pathological study of mummies saw varying levels of popularity throughout the 20th Century.[14]In 1992, the First World Congress on Mummy Studies was held inPuerto de la CruzonTenerifein theCanary Islands. More than 300 scientists attended the Congress to share nearly 100 years of collected data on mummies. The information presented at the meeting triggered a new surge of interest in the subject, with one of the major results being integration ofbiomedicalandbioarchaeologicalinformation on mummies with existing databases. This was not possible prior to the Congress due to the unique and highly specialized techniques required to gather such data.[15]

In more recent years, CT scanning has become an invaluable tool in the study of mummification by allowing researchers to digitally "unwrap" mummies without risking damage to the body. The level of detail in such scans is so intricate that small linens used in tiny areas such as the nostrils can be digitally reconstructed in3-D.[16]Such modelling has been utilized to perform digital autopsies on mummies to determine cause of death and lifestyle, such as in the case ofTutankhamun.[17]

Types of mummies
Mummies are typically divided into one of two distinct categories: anthropogenic or spontaneous. Anthropogenic mummies were deliberately created by the living for any number of reasons, the most common being for religious purposes. Spontaneous mummies, such asÖtzi, were created unintentionally due to natural conditions such as extremely dry heat or cold, oranaerobicconditions such as those found inbogs.[15]While most individual mummies exclusively belong to one category or the other, there are examples of both types being connected to a single culture, such as those from the Ancient Egyptian culture.[18]

Egyptian mummies
undefinedMummy in the British Museum Main article:Ancient Egyptian burial customsThe earliestAncient Egyptianmummies were created naturally due to the environment in which they were buried. In the era prior to 3500 BCE,[1]Egyptians buried the dead in pit graves, without regard tosocial status. Pit graves were often shallow. This characteristic allowed for the hot, dry sand of the desert todehydratethe bodies, leading to natural mummification.[18]

The natural preservation of the dead had a profound effect onAncient Egyptian religion. Deliberate mummification became an integral part of the rituals for the dead beginning as early as the2nd dynasty(about 3400 BCE).[18]New research of an 11 year study byUniversity of York,Macquarie UniversityandUniversity of Oxfordsuggests mummification occurred 1,500 year earlier than first thought.[19]Egyptians saw the preservation of the body after death as an important step toliving well in the afterlife. As Egypt gained more prosperity, burial practices became a status symbol for the wealthy as well. This cultural hierarchy lead to the creation of elaboratetombs, and more sophisticated methods of embalming.[18][20] By the4th dynasty(about 2600 BCE) Egyptian embalmers began to achieve "true mummification" through a process ofevisceration, followed by preserving the body in various minerals and oils.[18]Much of this early experimentation with mummification in Egypt is unknown. The few documents that directly describe the mummification process date to theGreco-Roman period. The majority of thepapyrithat have survived only describe the ceremonial rituals involved in embalming, not the actual surgical processes involved. A text known as The Ritual of Embalming does describe some of the practical logistics of embalming, however, there are only two known copies and each is incomplete.[21][22]

Another text that describes the processes being used in latter periods isHerodotus'Histories. Written in Book 2 of the Histories is one of the most detailed descriptions of the Egyptian mummification process, including the mention of usingnatronin order to dehydrate corpses for preservation.[23]However, these descriptions are short and fairly vague, leaving scholars to infer the majority of the techniques that were used by studying mummies that have been unearthed.[22]

By utilizing current advancements in technology, scientists have been able to uncover a plethora of new information about the techniques used in mummification. A series ofCT scansperformed on a 2,400-year-old mummy in 2008 revealed a tool that was left inside thecranial cavityof the skull.[24]The tool was a rod, made of an organic material, that was used to break apart the brain to allow it to drain out of the nose. This discovery helped to dispel the claim within Herodotus' works that the rod had been a hook made of iron.[23]Earlier experimentation in 1994 by researchersBob Brierand Ronald Wade supported these findings. While attempting to replicate Egyptian mummification, Brier and Wade discovered that removal of the brain was much easier when the brain was liquefied and allowed to drain with the help ofgravity, as opposed to trying to pull the organ out piece-by-piece with a hook.[22]

Through various methods of study over many decades, modernEgyptologistsnow have an accurate understanding of how mummification was achieved in Ancient Egypt. The first and most important step was to halt the process of decomposition, by removing the internal organs and washing out the body with a mix of spices and palm wine.[18]The only organ left behind was the heart, as tradition held the heart was the seat of thought and feeling and would therefore still be needed in the afterlife.[18]After cleansing, the body was then dried out with natron inside the empty body cavity as well as outside on the skin. The internal organs were also dried and either sealed in individual jars, or wrapped to be replaced within the body. This process typically took forty days.[22] undefinedThe Egyptian human mummy at Indian Museum, Kolkata.After dehydration, the mummy was wrapped in many layers oflinencloth. Within the layers, Egyptian priests placed smallamuletsto guard the decedent from evil.[18]Once the mummy was completely wrapped, it was coated in a resin in order to keep the threat of moist air away. Resin was also applied to the coffin in order to seal it. The mummy was then sealed within its tomb, alongside the worldly goods that were believed to help aid it in the afterlife.[21]

Aspergillus nigerhas been found in the mummies of ancient Egyptian tombs and can be inhaled when they are disturbed.[25]

Mummification and rank
Mummification is one of the defining customs in ancient Egyptian society for people today. The practice of preserving the human body is believed to be a quintessential feature of Egyptian life. Yet even mummification has a history of development and was accessible to different ranks of society in different ways during different periods. There were at least three different processes of mummification according to Herodotus. They range from "the most perfect" to the method employed by the "poorer classes".[26]

"Most Perfect" method
The most expensive process was to preserve the body by dehydration and protect against pests, such as insects. Almost all the actions Herodotus described serve one of these two functions.

First, the brain was removed by passing an iron hook through the nose into the cranium and retracting it by the same pathway; the gray matter was discarded. The embalmers then rinsed the skull with certain drugs that mostly cleared any residue of brain tissue and also had the effect of killing bacteria. Next, the embalmers made an incision along the flank with a sharp blade fashioned from an Ethiopian stone and removed the contents of the abdomen. Herodotus does not discuss the separate preservation of these organs and their placement either in special jars or back in the cavity, a process that was part of the most expensive embalming, according to archeological evidence.

The abdominal cavity was then rinsed with palm wine and an infusion of crushed, fragrant herbs and spices; the cavity was then filled with spices includingmyrrh,cassia, and, Herodotus notes, "every other sort of spice exceptfrankincense," also to preserve the body.

The body was further dehydrated by placing it innatron, a naturally occurring salt, for seventy days. Herodotus insists that the body did not stay in the natron longer than seventy days. Any shorter time and the body is not completely dehydrated; any longer, and the body is too stiff to move into position for wrapping. The embalmers then wash the body again and wrapped it with linen bandages. The bandages were covered with a gum that modern research has shown is both waterproofing agent and an antimicrobial agent.

At this point, the body was given back to the family. These "perfect" mummies were then placed in wooden cases that were human-shaped. Richer people placed these wooden cases in stone sarcophagus that provided further protection. The family placed the sarcophagus in the tomb upright against the wall, according to Herodotus.[27]

Avoiding expense
The second process that Herodotus describes was used by middle-class people or people who "wish to avoid expense". In this method, an oil derived fromcedar treeswas injected with a syringe into the abdomen. A rectal plug prevented the oil from escaping. This oil probably had the dual purpose of liquefying the internal organs, but also of disinfecting the abdominal cavity. (By liquefying the organs, the family avoided the expense ofcanopic jarsand separate preservation). The body was then placed in natron for seventy days. At the end of this time, the body was removed and the cedar oil, now containing the liquefied organs, was drained through the rectum. With the body dehydrated, it could be returned to the family. Herodotus does not describe the process of burial of such mummies, but they were perhaps placed in ashaft tomb. Poorer people used coffins fashioned fromterracotta.[28]

Inexpensive method
The third and least-expensive method the embalmers offered was to clear the intestines with an unnamed liquid, injected as an enema. The body was then placed in natron for seventy days and returned to the family. Herodotus gives no further details.[29]

Africa
In addition to the mummies of Egypt, there have been instances of mummies being discovered in other areas of the African continent. The bodies show a mix of anthropogenic and spontaneous mummification, with some being thousands of years old.

Libya
The mummified remains of an infant were discovered during an expedition by archaeologistFabrizio MoritoLibyaduring the winter of 1958-1959 in the natural cave structure ofUan Muhuggiag.[30]After curious deposits and cave paintings were discovered on the surfaces of the cave, expedition leaders decided to excavate. Uncovered alongside fragmented animal bone tools was the mummified body of an infant, wrapped in animal skin and wearing a necklace made of ostrich egg shell beads. Professor Tongiorgi of the University of Pisa radiocarbon-dated the infant to between 5,000-8,000 years old. A long incision located on the right abdominal wall, and the absence of internal organs, indicated that the body had been evisceratedpost-mortem, possibly in an effort to preserve the remains.[31]A bundle of herbs found within the body cavity also supported this conclusion.[32]Further research revealed that the child had been around 30 months old at the time of death, though gender could not be determined due to poor preservation of the sex organs.[33][34]

South Africa
The first mummy to be discovered inSouth Africa[35]was found in theBaviaanskloof Wilderness Areaby Dr.Johan Binnemanin 1999.[36][37]Nicknamed Moses, the mummy was estimated to be around 2,000 years old.[35][36]After being linked to the indigenousKhoiculture of the region, the National Council of Khoi Chiefs of South Africa began to make legal demands that the mummy be returned shortly after the body was moved to the Albany Museum inGrahamstown.[38]

Asia
undefinedMummy in the history museum ofJingzhouThe mummies of Asia are usually considered to be accidental. The decedents were buried in just the right place where the environment could act as an agent for preservation. This is particularly common in the desert areas of the Tarim Basin and Iran. Mummies have been discovered in more humid Asian climates, however these are subject to rapid decay after being removed from the grave.[39]

China
undefinedThe mummy ofXin Zhui.Mummies from variousdynastiesthroughoutChina's history have been discovered in several locations across the country. They are almost exclusively considered to be unintentional mummifications. Many areas in which mummies have been uncovered are difficult for preservation, due to their warm, moist climates. This makes the recovery of mummies a challenge, as exposure to the outside world can cause the bodies to decay in a matter of hours.[39]

An example of a Chinese mummy that was preserved despite being buried in an environment not conducive to mummification isXin Zhui. Also known as Lady Dai, she was discovered in the early 1970s at theMawangduiarchaeological site inChangsha.[40]She was the wife of the marquis of Dai during theHan dynasty, who was also buried with her alongside another young man often considered to be a very close relative.[41]However, Xin Zhui's body was the only one of the three to be mummified. Her corpse was so well-preserved that surgeons from the Hunan Provincial Medical Institute were able to perform an autopsy.[40]The exact reason why her body was so completely preserved has yet to be determined.[42]

Some of the more infamous mummies to be discovered in China are those termedTarim mummiesbecause of their discovery in theTarim basin. The dry desert climate of the basin proved to be an excellent agent for desiccation. For this reason, over 200 Tarim mummies, which are over 4,000 years old, were excavated from a cemetery in the present-dayXinjiangregion.[43]The mummies were found buried in upside-down boats with hundreds of 13-foot long wooden poles in the place of tombstones.[43]undefinedDNA sequencedata[44]shows that the mummies hadHaplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)characteristic of western Eurasia in the area ofEast-Central Europe,Central AsiaandIndus Valley.[45]This has created a stir in theTurkic-speakingundefinedUighurpopulation of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture, while it was not until the 10th century when the Uighurs are said by scholars to have moved to the region from Central Asia.[46]American SinologistVictor Mairclaims that "the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin were exclusively Caucasoid, or Europoid" with "east Asian migrants arriving in the eastern portions of the Tarim Basin around 3,000 years ago", while Mair also notes that is was not until 842 that the Uighur peoples settled in the area.[47]

Iran
Remains ofSalt Man4 on display at Zanjan.(left) Head of Salt Man 1 on display atNational Museum of IraninTehran(right).Main article:SaltmenAs of 2012, at least eight mummified human remains have been recovered from the Douzlakh Salt Mine at Chehr Abad in northwesternIran.[48]Due to their salt preservation, these bodies are collectively known asSaltmen.[49]undefinedCarbon-14testing conducted in 2008 dated three of the bodies to around 400 BCE. Laterisotopicresearch on the other mummies returned similar dates, however, many of these individuals were found to be from a region that is not closely associated with the mine. It was during this time that researchers determined the mine suffered a major collapse, which likely caused the death of the miners.[48]Since there is significant archaeological data that indicates the area was not actively inhabited during this time period, current consensus holds that the accident occurred during a brief period of temporary mining activity.[48]

Siberia
In 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr.Natalia Polosmakdiscovered theSiberian Ice Maiden, aScytho-Siberian woman, on theUkok Plateauin theAltay Mountainsnear the Mongolian border.[50]The mummy was naturally frozen due to the severe climatic conditions of the Siberian steppe. Also known as Princess Ukok, the mummy was dressed in finely detailed clothing and wore an elaborate headdress and jewelry. Alongside her body were buried six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey.[51]Her left arm and hand were tattooed withanimal stylefigures, including a highly stylizeddeer.[50]

The Ice Maiden has been a source of some recent controversy. The mummy's skin has suffered some slight decay, and the tattoos have faded since the excavation. Some residents of theAltai Republic, formed after the breakup of theSoviet Union, have requested the return of the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored inNovosibirskinSiberia.[50][51][52]

Another Siberian mummy, a man, was discovered much earlier in 1929. His skin was also marked with tattoos of two monsters resemblinggriffins, which decorated his chest, and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm.[50]

Europe
The European continent is home to a diverse spectrum of spontaneous and anthropogenic mummies. Some of the best-preserved mummies have come from bogs located across the region. The Capuchin monks that inhabited the area left behind hundreds of intentionally-preserved bodies that have provided insight into the customs and cultures of people from various eras. One of the oldest, and most infamous, mummies (nicknamedÖtzi) was discovered on this continent. New mummies continue to be uncovered in Europe well into the 21st Century.

Bog bodies
Main article:Bog bodyTheUnited Kingdom, theRepublic of Ireland,Germany, theNetherlands,Sweden, andDenmarkhave produced a number ofbog bodies, mummies of people deposited insphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, low temperature and lack of oxygen combined totanthe body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the decedent's last meal by examiningstomachcontents. A famous case is that of theHaraldskær Woman, who was discovered by labourers in a bog inJutlandin 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royalsarcophagusat the Saint Nicolai Church,Vejle, where she currently remains. Another famous bog body, also from Denmark, known as theTollund Manwas discovered in 1950. The corpse was noted for its excellent preservation of the face and feet, which appeared as if the man had recently died. To this day, only the head of Tollund Man remains, due to the decomposition of the rest of his body, which was not preserved along with the head.[53]

Canary Islands
Main article:Guanche mummiesThe mummies of theCanary Islandsbelong to theindigenousundefinedGuanchepeople and date to the time before 14th Century Spanish explorers settled in the area. All deceased people within the Guanche culture were mummified during this time, though the level of care taken with embalming and burial varied depending on individual social status. Embalming was carried out by specialized groups, organized according to gender, who were considered unclean by the rest of the community. The techniques for embalming were similar to those of the Ancient Egyptians; involving evisceration, preservation, and stuffing of the evacuated bodily cavities, then wrapping of the body in animal skins. Despite the successful techniques utilized by the Guanche, very few mummies remain due to looting and desecration.[54][55]

Czech Republic
undefinedMummies in theCapuchin Crypt in BrnoThe majority of mummies recovered in theCzech Republiccome from underground crypts. While there is some evidence of deliberate mummification, most sources state that desiccation occurred naturally due to unique conditions within the crypts.[56][57][58]

TheCapuchin Crypt in Brnocontains three hundred years of mummified remains directly below the main altar.[57]Beginning in the 18th Century when the crypt was opened, and continuing until the practice was discontinued in 1787, theCapuchin monksof the monastery would lay the deceased on a pillow of bricks on the ground. The unique air quality and topsoil within the crypt naturally preserved the bodies over time.[57][58]

Approximately fifty mummies were discovered in an abandoned crypt beneath theChurch of St. Procopius of SázavainVamberkin the mid-1980s.[59]Workers digging a trench accidentally broke into the crypt, which began to fill with waste water. The mummies quickly began to deteriorate, though thirty-four were able to be rescued and stored temporarily at the District Museum of the Orlické Mountains until they could be returned to the monastery in 2000.[59]The mummies range in age and social status at time of death, with at least two children and one priest.[57][59]The majority of the Vamberk mummies date from the 18th century.[59]

TheKlatovycatacombs currently house an exhibition ofJesuitmummies, alongside some aristocrats, that were originally interred between 1674-1783. In the early 1930s, the mummies were accidentally damaged during repairs, resulting in the loss of 140 bodies. The newly updated airing system preserves the thirty-eight bodies that are currently on display.[57][60]

Denmark
undefinedThe Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from a grave mound in Denmark.Apart from several bog bodies, Denmark has also yielded several other mummies, such as the three Borum Eshøj mummies, the Skrydstrup Woman and theEgtved Girl, who were all found inside burial mounds, ortumulus.

In 1875, the Borum Eshøj grave mound was uncovered, which had been built around three coffins, which belonged to a middle aged man and woman as well as a man in his early twenties.[61]Through examination, the woman was discovered to be around 50–60 years old. She was found with several artifacts made of bronze, consisting of buttons, a belt plate, and rings, showing she was of higher class. All of the hair had been removed from the skull later when farmers had dug through the casket. Her original hairstyle is unknown.[62]The two men wore kilts, and the younger man wore a sheath of which contained a bronze dagger. All three mummies were dated to 1351–1345 BCE.[61]

The Skrydstrup Woman was unearthed from atumulusin Southern Jutland, in 1935. Carbon-14 dating showed that she had died around 1300 BCE; examination also revealed that she was around 18–19 years old at the time of death, and that she had been buried in the summertime. Her hair had been drawn up in an elaborate hairstyle, which was then covered by a horse hair hairnet made bysprangtechnique. She was wearing a blouse and a necklace as well as two golden earrings, showing she was of higher class.[63]

TheEgtved Girl, dated to 1370 BCE, was found also inside a sealed coffin inside of a tumulus, in 1921. She was wearing abodiceand a skirt, including a belt and bronze bracelets. Also found with the girl were the cremated remains of a child at her feet, and by her head a box containing some bronze pins, a hairnet, and anawl.[64][65][66]

Hungary
In 1994, 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of aDominicanchurch inVác, Hungary from the 1729–1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History inBudapest. Unique to the Hungarian mummies are their elaborately decorated coffins, with no two being exactly alike.[67]

Italy
undefinedMummies in the Monks' Corridor of theCatacombe dei Cappuccini.The varied geography and climatology of Italy has led to many cases of spontaneous mummification.[68]Italian mummies display the same diversity, with a conglomeration of natural and intentional mummification spread across many centuries and cultures.

The oldest natural mummy in Europe was discovered in 1991 in theÖtztal Alpson the Austrian-Italian border. NicknamedÖtzi, the mummy is a 5,300 year-old male believed to be a member of theTamins-Carasso-Iseracultural group ofSouth Tyrol.[69][70]Despite his age, a recent DNA study conducted byWalther ParsonofInnsbruck Medical Universityrevealed Ötzi has 19 living genetic relatives.[69]

TheCapuchin Catacombs of Palermowere built in the 16th century by the monks of Palermo’s Capuchin monastery. Originally intended to hold the deliberately mummified remains of dead friars, internment in the catacombs became a status symbol for the local population in the following centuries. Burials continued until the 1920s, with one of the most famous final burials being that ofRosalia Lombardo. In all, the catacombs host nearly 8000 mummies. (See:Catacombe dei Cappuccini)

The most recent discovery of mummies in Italy came in 2010, when sixty mummified human remains were found in thecryptof the Conversion of St Paul church inRoccapelago di Pievepelago, Italy. Built in the 15th Century as a cannon hold and later converted in the 16th Century, the crypt had been sealed once it had reached capacity, leaving the bodies to be protected and preserved. The crypt was reopened during restoration work on the church, revealing the diverse array of mummies inside. The bodies were quickly moved to a museum for further study.[71]

North America
The mummies of North America are often steeped in controversy, as many of these bodies have been linked to still-existing native cultures. While the mummies provide a wealth of historically-significant data, native cultures and tradition often demands the remains be returned to their original resting places. This has led to many legal actions by Native American councils, leading to most museums keeping mummified remains out of the public eye.[72]

Canada
Main article:Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchiKwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi("Long ago person found" in theSouthern Tutchonelanguage of theChampagne and Aishihik First Nations), was found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier inTatshenshini-Alsek Park,British Columbia,Canada. According to the Kwäday Dän Ts'ìnchi Project, the remains are the oldest well preserved mummy discovered in North America.[73](It should be noted that theSpirit Cave mummyalthough not well preserved, is much older.)[74]Initial radiocarbon tests date the mummy to around 550 years-old.[73]

Greenland
undefinedThe mummy of a six-month-old boy found in QilakitsoqIn 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandonedInuitsettlement calledQilakitsoq, in Greenland. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month-old baby, a four-year-old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found.[75][76]

Mexico
undefinedA momia from GuanajuatoIntentional mummification inpre-Columbian Mexicowas practiced by theAztecculture. These bodies are collectively known asAztec mummies. Genuine Aztec mummies were "bundled" in a woven wrap and often had their faces covered by a ceremonial mask.[77]Public knowledge of Aztec mummies increased due to traveling exhibits and museums in the 19th and 20th centuries, though these bodies were typically naturally desiccated remains and not actually the mummies associated with Aztec culture. (See:Aztec mummy)

Natural mummification has been known to occur in several places in Mexico, though the most famous are themummies of Guanajuato.[78]A collection of these mummies, most of which date to the late 19th century, have been on display at El Museo de las Momias in the city ofGuanajuatosince 1970. The museum claims to have the smallest mummy in the world on display (a mummifiedfetus).[79]It was thought that minerals in the soil had the preserving effect, however it may rather be due to the warm, arid climate.[78][80]Mexican mummies are also on display in the small town ofEncarnación de Díaz,Jalisco.

United States
Spirit Cave manwas discovered in 1940 during salvage work prior to guano mining activity that was scheduled to begin in the area. The mummy is a middle-aged male, found completely dressed and lying on a blanket made of animal skin. Radiocarbon tests in the 1990s dated the mummy to being nearly 9,000 years old. The remains are currently held at theNevada State Museum. There has been some controversy within the local Native American community, who began petitioning to have the remains returned and reburied in 1995.[72][74][81]

Oceania
undefinedHoratio Gordon Robley with his mokomokai collection.Mummies from theOceaniaare not limited only toAustralia. Discoveries of mummified remains have also been located inNew Zealand, and theTorres Strait,[82]though these mummies have been historically harder to examine and classify.[83]Prior to the 20th Century, most literature on mummification in the region was either silent or anecdotal.[84]However, the boom of interest generated by the scientific study of Egyptian mummification lead to more concentrated study of mummies in other cultures, including the Oceania.

Australia
The aboriginal mummification traditions found inAustraliaare thought be related to those found in theTorres Straitislands,[84]the inhabitants of which achieved a high level of sophisticated mummification techniques (See:Torres Strait). Australian mummies lack some of the technical ability of the Torres Strait mummies, however much of the ritual aspects of the mummification process are similar.[84]Full-body mummification was achieved by these cultures, but not the level of artistic preservation as found on smaller islands. The reason for this seems to be for easier transport of bodies by more nomadic tribes.[84]

Torres Strait
The mummies of the Torres Strait have a considerably higher level of preservation technique as well as creativity compared to those found on Australia.[84]The process began with removal of viscera, after which the bodies were set in a seated position on a platform and either left to dry in the sun or smoked over a fire in order to aid in desiccation. In the case of smoking, some tribes would collect the fat that drained from the body to mix with ocher to create red paint that would then be smeared back on the skin of the mummy.[85]The mummies remained on the platforms, decorated with the clothing and jewelry they wore in life, before being buried.[84][85]

New Zealand
Main article:MokomokaiSomeMāoritribes from New Zealand would keep mummified heads as trophies from tribal warfare.[86]They are also known asMokomokai. In the 19th Century, many of the trophies were acquired by Europeans who found the tattooed skin to be a phenomenal curiosity. Westerners began to offer valuable commodities in exchange for the uniquely tattooed mummified heads. The heads were later put on display in museums, 16 of which being housed across France alone. In 2010, the Rouen City Hall of France returned one of the heads to New Zealand, despite earlier protests by the Culture Ministry of France.[86]

There is also evidence that some Maori tribes may have practiced full-body mummification, though the practice is not thought to have been widespread.[87]The discussion of Maori mummification has been historically controversial, with some experts in past decades claiming that such mummies have never existed.[88]Contemporary science does now acknowledge the existence of full-body mummification in the culture. There is still controversy, however, as to the nature of the mummification process. Some bodies appear to be spontaneously created by the natural environment, while others exhibit signs of deliberate practices. General modern consensus tends to agree that there could be a mixture of both types of mummification, similar to that of the Ancient Egyptian mummies.[87]

South America
TheSouth Americancontinent contains some of the oldest mummies in the world, both deliberate and accidental.[4]The bodies were preserved by the best agent for mummification: the environment. Rather than developing elaborate processes such as later-dynasty Ancient Egyptians, the early South Americans often left their dead in naturally dry or frozen areas, though some did perform surgical preparation when mummification was intentional.[89]Some of the reasons for intentional mummification in South America include memorialization, immortalization, and religious offerings.[90][90]

Chinchorro mummies
undefinedChinchorro mummies are the oldest deliberate mummies.Main article:Chinchorro mummiesTheChinchorro mummiesare the oldest intentionally prepared mummified bodies ever found. Beginning in5th millennium BCEand continuing for an estimated 3,500 years,[90]all human burials within the Chinchorro culture were prepared for mummification. The bodies were carefully prepared, beginning with removal of the internal organs and skin, before being left in the hot, dry climate of theAtacama Desert, which aided in desiccation.[90]A large number of Chinchorro mummies were also prepared by skilled artisans to be preserved in a more artistic fashion, though the purpose of this practice is widely debated.[90]

Inca mummies
undefinedLlullaillacomummy inSalta province(Argentina).Several naturally-preserved, unintentional mummies dating from theIncanperiod have been found in the colder regions ofArgentina,Chile, andPeru. These are collectively known as "ice mummies".[91]The first Incan ice mummy was discovered in 1954 atopEl Plomo Peakin Chile, after an eruption of the nearby volcanoSabancayamelted away ice that covered the body.[91]TheMummy of El Plomowas a male child who was presumed to be wealthy due to his well-fed bodily characteristics. He was considered to be the most well-preserved ice mummy in the world until the discovery of Mummy Juanita in 1995.[91]

Mummy Juanitawas discovered near the summit ofAmpatoin the Peruvian section of theAndes Mountainsby archaeologistJohan Reinhard.[92]Her body had been so thoroughly frozen that it had not been desiccated; much of her skin, muscle tissue, and internal organs retained their original structure.[91]She is believed to be a ritual sacrifice, due to the close proximity of her body to the Incan capital ofCuzco, as well as the fact she was wearing highly intricate clothing to indicate her special social status. Several Incan ceremonial artifacts and temporary shelters uncovered in the surrounding area seem to support this theory.[91]

More evidence that the Inca left sacrificial victims to die in the elements, and later be unintentionally preserved, came in 1999 with the discovery of theLlullaillaco mummieson the border of Argentina and Peru.[92]The three mummies are children, two girls and one boy, who are thought to be sacrifices associated with the ancient ritual ofcapacocha.[93]Recentbiochemical analysisof the mummies has revealed that the victims had consumed increasing quantities ofalcoholandcoca, possibly in the form ofchicha, in the months leading up to sacrifice.[93]The dominant theory for the drugging reasons that, alongside ritual uses, the substances probably made the children more docile. Chewed coca leaves found inside the eldest child's mouth upon her discovery in 1999 supports this theory.[93]

Self-mummification
Main articles:Buddhist mummiesandSokushinbutsuMonks whose bodies remainincorruptwithout any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death. Self-mummification was practiced until the late 1800s in Japan and has been outlawed since the early 1900s.

Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know their time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting inlotus position, put into a vessel with drying agents (such as wood, paper, orlime) and surrounded by bricks, to be exhumed later, usually after three years. The preserved bodies would then be decorated with paint and adorned with gold.

Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt,nuts,seeds,roots,pine bark, and urushi tea.[94]

Modern mummies
undefinedJeremy Bentham wished to be mummified after he died.===Jeremy Bentham=== In the 1830s,Jeremy Bentham, the founder ofutilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the "horror at dissection originates in ignorance"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, which despite being mis-preserved, was displayed beneath his feet until theft required it to be stored elsewhere),[95]which were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and "seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought." His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in theUniversity College London.

Vladimir Lenin
During the early 20th century the Russian movement ofCosmism, as represented byNikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people. The idea was so popular that, afterVladimir Lenin's death,Leonid KrasinandAlexander Bogdanovsuggested tocryonically preservehis body and brain in order to revive him in the future.[96]Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized.[96]Instead his body wasembalmedand placed on permanent exhibition in theLenin Mausoleumin Moscow, where it is displayed to this day. The mausoleum itself was modeled byAleksey Shchusevon thePyramid of Djoserand theTomb of Cyrus.

Summum
In 1975, anesotericorganization by the name ofSummumintroduced "Modern Mummification", a service that utilizes modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods of mummification. The first person to formally undergo Summum's process of modern mummification was the founder of Summum,Summum Bonum Amen Ra, who died in January 2008.[97]Summum is currently considered to be the only "commercial mummification business" in the world.[98]

Alan Billis
In 2010, a team led by forensic archaeologist,Stephen Buckley, mummifiedAlan Billisusing techniques based on 19 years of research of 18th dynasty Egyptian mummification. The process was filmed for television, for the documentary "Mummifying Alan: Egypt's Last Secret"[99][100]Billis made the decision to allow his body to be mummified after being diagnosed with terminal cancer in 2009. His body currently resides at London's Gordon Museum[101]

Plastination
undefinedPlastination by Gunther Von Hagens.Main article:PlastinationPlastinationis a technique used inanatomyto conserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample.

The technique was invented byGunther von Hagenswhen working at the anatomical institute of theUniversity of Heidelbergin 1978. Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotion, especially as the creator and director of theBody Worldstraveling exhibitions,[102]exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally. He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination inHeidelberg.

More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination.[103]

Treatment of ancient mummies in modern times
In theMiddle Ages, based on a mistranslation from theArabicterm forbitumen, it was thought that mummies possessed healing properties. As a result, it became common practice to grind Egyptian mummies into a powder to be sold and used as medicine. When actual mummies became unavailable, thesun-desiccatedcorpses of criminals, slaves andsuicidalpeople were substituted by mendacious merchants.[104]The practice developed into a wide-scale business that flourished until the late 16th century. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties to stop bleeding, and were sold aspharmaceuticalsin powdered form as inmellified man.[105]Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; a brownish pigment known asMummy brown, based on Mummia (sometimes called alternatively Caput mortuum, Latin for death's head), which was originally obtained by grounding human and animal Egyptian mummies. It was most popular in the 17th century, but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists who replaced the said pigment by a totally different blend -but keeping the original name, Mummia or Mummy Brown-yielding a similar tint and based on ground minerals(oxides and fired earths) and or blends of powdered gums and oleoresins (such as myrrh and frankincense) as well as ground bitumen. These blends appeared on the market as forgeries of powdered mummy pigment but were ultimately considered as acceptable replacements, once antique mummies were no longer permitted to be destroyed.[106]Many thousands of mummified cats were also sent from Egypt to England to be processed for use infertilizer.[107]

During the 19th century, following the discovery of the first tombs and artifacts in Egypt, Egyptology was a huge fad in Europe, especially inVictorian England. European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions.[105]These sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate.

The use of mummies asfuelforlocomotiveswas documented byMark Twain(likely as a joke or humor),[108]but the truth of the story remains debatable. During theAmerican Civil War, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper.[108][109][dead link] Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal.[110][111]

In popular culture
undefined[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lon_Chaney,_Jr. Lon Chaney, Jr.]asKharisin the film The Mummy's Ghost (1944)Mummies are commonly featured inhorrorgenres asundeadcreatures. One of the earliest examples of this is The Mummy!: Or a Tale of the Twenty-Second Century, an 1827 novel written byJane C. Loudon. This early science-fiction work concerns an Egyptian mummy named Cheops, who is brought back in to life in the 22nd century.

During the 20th century,horror filmsand other mass media popularized the notion of acurseassociated with mummies (see Curse of the pharaohs). One of the earliest appearances was The Jewel of Seven Stars, ahorror novelbyBram Stokerfirst published in 1903 that concerned an archaeologist's plot to revive an ancient Egyptian mummy. This book later served as the basis for the 1971 film Blood from the Mummy's Tomb.

Films representing such a belief include the 1932 movie The Mummy starringBoris KarloffasImhotep; four subsequent 1940s'Universal Studiosmummy films which featured a mummy namedKharis, who also was the title mummy in The Mummy, a 1959 Hammer remake of The Mummy's Hand and The Mummy's Tomb; anda remake of the original filmthat was released in 1999 (and later spawned two direct sequels and prequels and a spinoff movie). The belief in cursed mummies probably stems in part from the supposed curse on the tomb ofTutankhamun. In 1979, theAmerican Broadcasting Companyaired a TV holiday show, The Halloween That Almost Wasn't, in which a mummy from Egypt (Robert Fitch) arrived atCount Dracula's castle without speaking. undefinedSteps of forensic facial reconstruction of a mummyThe 1922 discovery ofTutankhamun's tomb by archaeologistHoward Carterbrought mummies into the mainstream.Slapstickcomedy trio theThree Stoogeshumorously exploited the discovery in the short film We Want Our Mummy, in which they explored the tomb of themidgetKing Rutentuten (and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy). A decade later, they played crooked usedchariotsalesmen in Mummy's Dummies, in which they ultimately assisted a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache.

Robot mummies were featured in a Doctor Who story, Pyramids of Mars, in the 1970s, while theHammer Horrorfilm series had also included what had become a stock genre character. A new Hollywood series of films featuring an immortal undead High Priest began with The Mummy in 1999.[112]The film was a box-office success and was followed by two sequels-The Mummy Returnsin 2001 andThe Mummy: Tomb of the Dragon Emperorin 2008.

Personal tools

 * Create account
 * Log in

Namespaces

 * Article
 * Talk

Variants
undefined

Views

 * Read
 * View source
 * View history

Search
undefined

Navigation

 * Main page
 * Contents
 * Featured content
 * Current events
 * Random article
 * Donate to Wikipedia
 * Wikimedia Shop

Interaction

 * Help
 * About Wikipedia
 * Community portal
 * Recent changes
 * Contact page

Tools

 * What links here
 * Related changes
 * Upload file
 * Special pages
 * Permanent link
 * Page information
 * Wikidata item
 * Cite this page

Print/export
undefined===Languages=== Edit links* This page was last modified on 15 September 2014 at 18:59.
 * Create a book
 * Download as PDF
 * Printable version
 * Afrikaans
 * العربية
 * Avañe'ẽ
 * Azərbaycanca
 * বাংলা
 * Беларуская
 * Български
 * Bosanski
 * Brezhoneg
 * Català
 * Čeština
 * Dansk
 * Deutsch
 * Eesti
 * Ελληνικά
 * Español
 * Esperanto
 * Euskara
 * فارسی
 * Français
 * Frysk
 * Gaelg
 * Galego
 * ગુજરાતી
 * 한국어
 * Հայերեն
 * हिन्दी
 * Hrvatski
 * Ido
 * Bahasa Indonesia
 * Italiano
 * עברית
 * Basa Jawa
 * ಕನ್ನಡ
 * ქართული
 * Кыргызча
 * Latina
 * Latviešu
 * Lietuvių
 * Magyar
 * Македонски
 * مصرى
 * Монгол
 * မြန်မာဘာသာ
 * Nederlands
 * नेपाली
 * 日本語
 * Norsk bokmål
 * Norsk nynorsk
 * Polski
 * Português
 * Română
 * Русский
 * Simple English
 * Slovenščina
 * کوردی
 * Српски / srpski
 * Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
 * Suomi
 * Svenska
 * Tagalog
 * தமிழ்
 * ไทย
 * Тоҷикӣ
 * Türkçe
 * Українська
 * اردو
 * Tiếng Việt
 * Winaray
 * Yorùbá
 * 中文
 * Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to theTerms of UseandPrivacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of theWikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
 * Privacy policy
 * About Wikipedia
 * Disclaimers
 * Contact Wikipedia
 * Developers
 * Mobile view
 *